In the 1920s, Calvin Coolidge, the US president at the time, called the country's democracy the "greatest hope of humanity". But a century later, the 2020 presidential election is hardly a shining example of representative government.
President Donald Trump has given warnings about widespread postal voting fraud and claimed the election on November 3 could be rigged.
Campaigners describe millions of Americans being blocked from balloting by needlessly strict and discriminatory voter registration rules.
According to Pew Research Centre, only 55.7 per cent of Americans voted in the 2016 election, putting the US towards the bottom of the turnout list of rich countries.
The list is led by Belgium, where 87.2 per cent of the population voted in 2014.
In a survey of the perceived integrity of elections from the University of Sydney, the US ranks 57th globally and is among the lowest-scoring rich countries, alongside such relative newcomers to democracy as Kosovo and Romania.
Many US pro-democracy campaigners accuse Mr Trump's Republican Party of deliberately suppressing the votes of Latinos, black people and other left-leaning minorities in a bid to retain power as demographics shift in the US.
The National assesses how turnout is being affected this year.
Reformed, but not for voting:
More than five million Americans are unable to vote because they were convicted of a crime, according to the Sentencing Project. That number is falling across the US, but more than 8 per cent of adults in Alabama, Mississippi and Tennessee remain disenfranchised for this reason.
In 2018, Florida residents voted in a referendum to allow felons to vote. While 67,000 have registered, more than 900,000 of the state's convicts who have completed their sentences remain unable to cast ballots, often because of unpaid court-ordered fines.
The battle rages on with Mr Trump accusing billionaire Mike Bloomberg of being a criminal for helping to raise $16 million to pay off outstanding fees that prevented former felons from casting a ballot.
Proving who you are:
A worrying 11 per cent of Americans cannot register to vote because they lack the required government-issued identity card, according to the Centre for American Progress, a liberal think tank. Ten states have strict voter ID laws, a report by the centre says.
Nationally, turnout is suppressed by as much as 3 per cent. Minorities and students are less likely to meet registration rules than others.
In Georgia, about 53,000 registered voters received a "pending" status on their files in 2018 because of minor misspellings or missing hyphens on registration documents, the report says. Seventy per cent of them were black.
Long journeys and long lines:
-
Hundreds of people wait in line for early voting, in Marietta, Georgia. AP Photo -
People wait in line on the first day of early voting for the general election at the C.T. Martin Natatorium and Recreation Center in Atlanta, Georgia. AFP -
Voters wait in a line to vote that has an estimated 3-hour as the first day of early voting is underway at the George Pierce Park in Suwanee, Georgia, USA. EPA -
Tamara Ross waits in line on the first day of early voting for the general election at the C.T. Martin Natatorium and Recreation Center in Atlanta, Georgia. AFP -
Residents wait in line outside an early voting polling location for the 2020 Presidential election in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S. Bloomberg -
Residents wait in line outside an early voting polling location for the 2020 Presidential election in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S. Bloomberg -
Residents cast ballots an early voting polling location for the 2020 Presidential election in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S. Bloomberg -
Voters wearing protective masks stand in line to cast ballots at an early voting polling location for the 2020 Presidential elections in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S. Bloomberg -
Voters wearing protective masks stand in line to cast ballots at an early voting polling location for the 2020 Presidential elections in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S. Bloomberg -
A resident takes a sticker after casting a ballot at an early voting polling location for the 2020 Presidential election in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S. Bloomberg -
A poll worker sanitizes a voting machine screen at an early voting polling location for the 2020 Presidential election in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S. Bloomberg -
Residents cast ballots an early voting polling location for the 2020 Presidential election in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S. Bloomberg -
State Farm Arena is used as a polling place on the first day of early voting in the US Presidential election, shown underway in Atlanta, Georgia, USA. EPA -
Voters cast ballots as the first day of early voting is underway at the George Pierce Park in Suwanee, Georgia, USA. EPA
Officials across the US closed hundreds of polling stations in recent years, the centre says. As a result, some voters struggle to get to a polling station and others find long lines when they arrive.
This is especially true in Latino, black and other minority neighbourhoods. Long lines deterred about 730,000 Americans from voting in 2012, according to a study in 2016.
Georgia closed hundreds of polling stations in recent years and when early voting began in October people reported 10-hour queues and more.
This campaign season, Texas Governor Greg Abbott, a Republican, tried to limit each Texan county to having only one drop-off point for absentee ballots. He was blocked by a judge.
Intimidation:
Mr Trump sparked controversy during the first presidential debate when he urged the neo-fascist Proud Boys to “stand back and stand by” before the election on November 3.
Critics say Mr Trump was using the famously truculent group to intimidate minority and left-wing voters.
There is a long history of racially charged intimidation in US elections. During the 2018 mid-term elections white supremacist groups unleashing barrages of racist robocalls to voters' homes.
In Miami, a police officer wearing pro-Trump face mask at a polling station drew criticism and there have been protests by Trump supporters trying to block early voting.
Still, intimidation may not be working. Record numbers of Americans have turned out for early voting in some states already this year.
The purged:
-
President Donald Trump gestures as he talks about Democratic presidential candidate former Vice President Joe Biden as he speaks at a campaign rally Monday, Oct. 19, 2020, in Tucson, Ariz. (AP Photo/Ross D. Franklin) -
A woman wearing a protective masks stand in line to cast a ballot at an early voting polling location for the 2020 Presidential election in Miami, Florida, U.S., on Monday, Oct. 19, 2020. The Biden campaign and its supporters have booked $15.4 million worth of media advertising on Oct. 19, compared with $6 million booked by the Trump campaign and its backers, according to data by ad-tracking firm Advertising Analytics. Photographer: Marco Bello/Bloomberg -
Biden Harris campaign signs are displayed outside an early voting polling location for the 2020 Presidential election in Miami, Florida, U.S., on Monday, Oct. 19, 2020. The Biden campaign and its supporters have booked $15.4 million worth of media advertising on Oct. 19, compared with $6 million booked by the Trump campaign and its backers, according to data by ad-tracking firm Advertising Analytics. Photographer: Marco Bello/Bloomberg -
Supporters of U.S. President Donald Trump hold signs during a rally outside an early voting polling location for the 2020 Presidential election in Miami, Florida, U.S., on Monday, Oct. 19, 2020. The Biden campaign and its supporters have booked $15.4 million worth of media advertising on Oct. 19, compared with $6 million booked by the Trump campaign and its backers, according to data by ad-tracking firm Advertising Analytics. Photographer: Marco Bello/Bloomberg -
Voters wearing protective masks stand in line to cast ballots at an early voting polling location for the 2020 Presidential election in Miami, Florida, U.S., on Monday, Oct. 19, 2020. The Biden campaign and its supporters have booked $15.4 million worth of media advertising on Oct. 19, compared with $6 million booked by the Trump campaign and its backers, according to data by ad-tracking firm Advertising Analytics. Photographer: Marco Bello/Bloomberg -
Voters wearing protective masks stand in line to cast ballots at an early voting polling location for the 2020 Presidential election in Miami, Florida, U.S., on Monday, Oct. 19, 2020. The Biden campaign and its supporters have booked $15.4 million worth of media advertising on Oct. 19, compared with $6 million booked by the Trump campaign and its backers, according to data by ad-tracking firm Advertising Analytics. Photographer: Marco Bello/Bloomberg -
PRESCOTT, AZ - OCTOBER 19: U.S. President Donald Trump speaks at a Make America Great Again campaign rally on October 19, 2020 in Prescott, Arizona. With almost two weeks to go before the November election, President Trump is back on the campaign trail with multiple daily events as he continues to campaign against Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden. Caitlin O'Hara/Getty Images/AFP == FOR NEWSPAPERS, INTERNET, TELCOS & TELEVISION USE ONLY == -
PRESCOTT, AZ - OCTOBER 19: People watch as U.S. President Donald Trump speaks at a Make America Great Again campaign rally on October 19, 2020 in Prescott, Arizona. With almost two weeks to go before the November election, President Trump is back on the campaign trail with multiple daily events as he continues to campaign against Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden. Caitlin O'Hara/Getty Images/AFP == FOR NEWSPAPERS, INTERNET, TELCOS & TELEVISION USE ONLY == -
PRESCOTT, AZ - OCTOBER 19: U.S. President Donald Trump watches as Senator Martha McSally (R-AZ) speaks at a Make America Great Again campaign rally on October 19, 2020 in Prescott, Arizona. With almost two weeks to go before the November election, President Trump is back on the campaign trail with multiple daily events as he continues to campaign against Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden. Caitlin O'Hara/Getty Images/AFP == FOR NEWSPAPERS, INTERNET, TELCOS & TELEVISION USE ONLY == -
epa08758158 Supporters of US President Donald J. Trump arrive to attend his campaign rally at Tucson International Airport in Tucson, Arizona, USA, 19 October 2020. Arizona which has been a traditionally Republican majority state is in play in the 2020 presidential election with polls showing that challenger Joe Biden may win the state and Democratic Senate candidate Mark Kelly may complete the flip from republican to democrat in major political offices. EPA/RICK D'ELIA -
PRESCOTT, AZ - OCTOBER 19: U.S. President Donald Trump departs a Make America Great Again campaign rally in Marine One on October 19, 2020 in Prescott, Arizona. With almost two weeks to go before the November election, President Trump is back on the campaign trail with multiple daily events as he continues to campaign against Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden. Caitlin O'Hara/Getty Images/AFP == FOR NEWSPAPERS, INTERNET, TELCOS & TELEVISION USE ONLY == -
PRESCOTT, AZ - OCTOBER 19: People watch as U.S. President Donald Trump speaks at a campaign rally on October 19, 2020 in Prescott, Arizona. With almost two weeks to go before the November election, President Trump is back on the campaign trail with multiple daily events as he continues to campaign against Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden. Caitlin O'Hara/Getty Images/AFP == FOR NEWSPAPERS, INTERNET, TELCOS & TELEVISION USE ONLY == -
PRESCOTT, AZ - OCTOBER 19: U.S. President Donald Trump waves to the crowd before departing at a Make America Great Again campaign rally on October 19, 2020 in Prescott, Arizona. With almost two weeks to go before the November election, President Trump is back on the campaign trail with multiple daily events as he continues to campaign against Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden. Caitlin O'Hara/Getty Images/AFP == FOR NEWSPAPERS, INTERNET, TELCOS & TELEVISION USE ONLY == -
epa08758241 US President Donald Trump greets supporters at Tucson International Airport in Tucson, Arizona, USA, 19 October 2020. Arizona, which has been a traditionally Republican majority state, is in play in the 2020 US presidential election, with polls showing that challenger Joe Biden may win the state and Democratic Senate candidate Mark Kelly may complete the flip from republican to democrat in major political offices. EPA/RICK D'ELIA
Many US voters have turned up at polling stations on election day only to discover their name has been purged from the voter roll and they cannot cast a ballot.
So-called voter roll purges occur with ever-greater frequency, says the Brennan Centre for Justice, a voting watchdog. Between 2014 and 2016, states removed about 16 million voters from rolls. Officials say they are "cleaning up" lists and tackling voter fraud, but critics say it is often a deliberate ploy to suppress turnout.
Gerrymandering:
-
Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden waves as he departs The Queen theater in Wilmington, Delaware. AFP -
Democratic presidential candidate Joe Biden walks to his motorcade vehicle after talking with Wilmington, Delaware police officers as he departs The Queen theatre in Wilmington. AP Photo -
Democratic presidential candidate Joe Biden fists bumps a police officer as he departs The Queen after taping an interview with CBS’ 60 Minutes, in Wilmington, Delaware. AFP -
US Democratic presidential candidate Joe Biden with his granddaughter Finnegan Biden hold milkshakes outside a Cook Out restaurant in Durham, North Carolina. Reuters -
Democratic presidential candidate Joe Biden boards his campaign plane at Raleigh-Durham International Airport in Morrisville, North Carolina. AP Photo -
Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden speaks during a drive-in campaign rally at Riverside High School in Durham, North Carolina. AFP -
Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden waves as he departs the stage during a drive-in campaign rally at Riverside High School in Durham, North Carolina. AFP -
US President Donald Trump and Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden participate in their first 2020 presidential campaign debate held on the campus of the Cleveland Clinic at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio. Reuters -
Members of the group "Arizona Republicans Who Believe In Treating Others With Respect" hold signs in support of Democratic presidential candidate Joe Biden, during evening rush hour in Phoenix, Arizona. AFP -
Dennis Marshall, front left, and his Puerto Rican wife, Nettie Marshall, wave flags and signs to passing motorists during a rally supporting Democratic presidential candidate Joe Biden in Orlando, Florida. AP Photo -
A caravan of supporters for Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden drive past supporters of President Donald Trump standing on the sidewalk next to the Versailles Restaurant during a Worker Caravan for Biden event in Miami, Florida. AFP -
Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden speaks during a drive-in campaign rally at Riverside High School in Durham, North Carolina. AFP
American politicians have mastered the dark art of shifting electoral boundaries to influence the outcome of a vote.
Boundaries can be configured so as to pack as many like-minded voters as possible into a small number of districts and distributing the rest in other districts too sparsely to form a majority. It skews results.
In Pennsylvania in 2012, Democratic candidates received about 50 per cent of votes in House of Representatives races, but Republicans took 75 per cent of the congressional seats.
The list goes on ...
There are many other ways that voters run into problems. In the past, party activists have phoned registered voters on election day, urging them to go out and cast a ballot, only to mistakenly direct them to the wrong polling stations.
Broken and malfunctioning voting machines have also been a bugbear, with hardware succumbing to problems such as humidity and freezing temperatures.
For a nation that proudly brands itself the world’s oldest continuous democracy, the creaking system has many stumbling blocks – intentional or otherwise – to speedy, efficient vote casting.
